The sub-continent has enjoyed a virtually uninterrupted history of developments in the realm of art and architecture and many classical art forms are rooted in a folk or tribal base and connected to religion, not only in its mystical aspects but even the secular. From their folk base, Indian art, architecture and culture evolved into classical forms, and reached their zenith during the Gupta Empire.

Buddhist art flourished during the Gupta period, which has often been described as a golden age. As in all periods, there is little difference in the images of the major Indian religions Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain- though from simplified structures, art also took on ornamental details. The Ajanta caves, built around 650 AD, contain beautifully crafted Buddhist frescoes.

Under the Kushans, conquerors from central Asia, two of India's most important artistic styles were developed between the 2nd and 5th centuries AD: Gandhara art and Mathura art. Gandhara art presents some of the earliest images of the Buddha, profoundly influenced by 2nd century Hellenistic art and was itself highly influential in central and eastern Asia.

Stupas and monasteries were adorned with relief friezes, showing figures in classical poses with flowing Hellenistic draperies.

Around the 11th to 13th centuries, the Dilwara Jain temples on Mount Abu exhibited filigree carvings in marble as to appear almost transparent.

Although there were innumerable hill-top forts constructed by the Rajputs, it wasn't until later that these rulers learnt to build enormous palaces within these forts and evolved techniques of insulating them from the heat, and palace architects found ways of ensuring optimal ventilation and exposure to light. Most of these palaces were richly decorated and provide tremendous insight into the artistic and decorative choices that were favoured by the royalty.

A distinctive feature of the Rajput forts was the fanciful use of colour, mirror-work, mother-of-pearl and gilt in the decoration of their fortress-like palaces. Although not remarkable in architectural terms, the Jharokhas and Aangans, and richly decorated gateways make these palaces unique and interesting. Indian art has been strongly influenced by the rich tradition of rational and spiritual philosophy that informed Indian thought. Stupas and temples incorporated a symbolic language based on visual representations of important philosophical concepts, like the Chakra - the revolving wheel of time; the Padma - or the lotus embodying creation; Ananta symbolizing water, the life-giving force; Swastika - representing the four-fold aspects of creation and motion; Kalpavriksha - the wish-fulfilling tree that symbolizes imagination; Mriga - or deer symbolic of erotic desire and beauty; and lingam and yoni- the male and female fertility symbols.

Therefore, Indian temples and stupas were also cultural centres, which explain the numerous images of everyday life. After the 10th century, erotic themes begin to make their mark. Sensuality and sexual interaction is displayed in the temples of Khajuraho, Konarak and Bhubaneshwar and in the Kakathiya temples of Palampet. These depicted that, in that particular period of Indian history, there was complete compatibility between human sexuality and human spirituality.

(Photos from Khajuraho temples)
 

(Panch Rath Temple of Mahabalipuram)
 

(The Qutub Minar)

Islamic influence on Indian architecture was seen after the 11th century with the Turkish and Afghan invasions Qutb-ud-din Aibak, founder of the so-called slave dynasty built the first mosque in Delhi as well as the Qutub Minar.

The Mughal emperor Akbar welded Hindu and Islamic styles of architecture in his city Fatehpur Sikri, while his grandson, Shah Jahan distinguished himself by building the magnificent ode to love, the Taj Mahal.

When the British conquered India, the Victorian Gothic style gained currency which was used in public buildings in Mumbai, Chennai and Calcutta. In the early decades of the 20th century, Edwin Lutyens designed New Delhi in the neo-classical style.

Modern Indian architecture has come into its own, first with the designing of the city of Chandigarh by Le Corbusier. Other notable architects now are Charles Correa, Balkrishna Doshi and Laurie Baker, who have been innovating with both material and design.

Painting

Illustrations on palm-leaf manuscripts of Jain and Buddhist texts in Gujarat around the 12th century have strong resonances with folk paintings.

These also influence the famous Indian miniature paintings. Many of the finest Indian miniatures were based on Ragmalas - i.e. moods associated with different musical ragas. Here the emphasis was on conveying a particular sentiment or mood, or atmosphere. Through the bold use of colour, abstract touches, and deliberate flattening of three-dimensional textures, the artist succeeded in bringing out certain hidden nuances that simply would not be possible any other way.

One can appreciate the earnest lyricism of the Orissa palm-leaf miniatures, the decorous elan of the Bundelkhand wall paintings, the bold and dark colours of Lepakshi, and the vivacious renditions in the palaces and temples of Madurai, Thanjavur and Ramanathapuram.

In all these varied traditions of Indian painting, an important element that infused Indian painting with charm and vivacity was the folk idiom that found its way in the art of the regional kingdoms.

The fusion of Persian and Mughal arts with Indian created a wholly distinctive art form in the 15th-16th centuries resulting in hybrid schools like the Pahari, Rajasthan and Deccan schools of painting.

Music and Dance

Classical Indian music too has folk origins. The heart of all Indian classical music is the 'raga', a Sanskrit term, and each raga has a distinctive colour and mood. Most ragas today are highly refined and grammatised codifications of tribal and folk melodies. Each raga has its own ethos, to be sung at a particular time of day, season and invokes a specific mood. The greatness of Indian music lies in the freedom given to each singer, because beyond set parameters the musician is free to innovate. This has also created the various 'gharanas' of music. There are two major traditions of Indian classical music — Hindustani (north Indian) and Carnatic (south Indian). Though both are based on the same fundamental concept, there are differences in tones, etc. The sitar is the most famous Indian musical instrument, but there are a host of others including the veena, sarod, santoor, shehnai, flute, all accompanied by percussion instruments like the tabla, pakhawaj, mridangam and ghatam. All have evolved from simple folk instruments made from reeds, bamboo and gourds.

Music and dance before the birth of classical dance forms revolved around the activities of rural and tribal people. Rural communities even today celebrate the rhythms of daily and seasonal life with dances and music, which have great similarities to each other. While in the Himalayan belt men and women hold each other and sway gracefully, in Punjab, dancing is more vigorous, called the Bhangra (performed by men) and Giddha (performed by women.)

In Rajasthan, women with covered faces, whirl round and round in the Ghoomar while their counterparts in Gujarat perform the Garba.

There are many existing forms of dance drama or folk theatre such as Nautanki in Rajasthan, UP and Bihar, Bhavai of Gujarat, Tamasha in Maharashtra, Jatra in Bengal, Yakshagana m Karnataka and Theyyam in Kerala. Martial art forms have been stylized to quasi- dance forms in the northeast, Lazin dances of Maharashtra, Kalaripayattu of Kerala and Chhau of Orissa. Classical dances in India too have their own variety. There are six major classical dance styles in India — Bharatanatyam from Tamil Nadu, Odissi from Orissa, Kathak from Uttar Pradesh, Manipuri from Manipur, Kathakali and Mohiniattam from Kerala and Kuchipudi from Andhra Pradesh. They all adhere to the canons of classical dance as laid down in Natya Shastra, written by sage Bharata in the second century BC. Over the centuries, a complex repertoire of hand movements, rhythms, facial gestures and body movements have been developed to convey subtle meanings.